The habitats of North America

Tidal flats form the intertidal zone of exposed sand, silt, and mud, without continuous vegetation cover — this sets the formation apart from the rocky intertidal shore (A2), underlain by solid rock, and from the dry shore above the drift line (B1), not flooded daily. In North America such flats stretch along sheltered bays, as at Daniel's Flats, New Brunswick, where the ebb tide exposes the flat over hundreds of metres. For birds this is prime feeding ground: shorebirds such as Dunlin and Sanderling probe for worms and shellfish, American Avocet and both oystercatchers forage by sight, and White Ibis and Roseate Spoonbill work the shallow, muddy water.

To the species · CMECS

The rocky intertidal shore consists of solid rock and boulders that fall dry and flood twice daily — this sets it apart from the soft substrate of tidal flats (A1) and from the permanently submerged kelp forest (A3), which begins only below the low-water line. In North America this shore occurs along the Pacific coast, as at Yaquina Head, Oregon, where wave action forms a banded zone of seaweed. For birds the rock offers grip and food: American Oystercatcher and Black Oystercatcher pry loose shellfish, Belted Kingfisher dives for fish from the edge, and Tufted Puffin uses the shore as a breeding site.

To the species · USNVC

Kelp forest and shallow seabed is the permanently submerged, light-reached bottom on which large brown algae root — this makes the formation deeper than the emergent rocky intertidal shore (A2), and shallower and bottom-bound compared with the open ocean (A4), where no seabed lies within reach. In North America Macrocystis pyrifera forms underwater forests along the Pacific coast, as at Cojo Anchorage, California, where the fronds reach the water surface. For diving birds it is a productive layer: Northern Gannet and Brown Booby plunge-dive at the kelp edge, while Tufted Puffin and Horned Puffin pursue fish underwater.

To the species · CMECS

Open ocean is the water column far from shore, where no seabed lies within reach of light or diving — this sets the formation apart from the bottom-bound kelp forest (A3) and from sea ice (A5), where a frozen layer seals off the water. CMECS divides the marine system by depth into a nearshore, an offshore, and an oceanic zone, and this formation covers the last of these. In North America the open ocean extends beyond the continental shelf, as off the Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Birds here are adapted to a pelagic existence: Black-footed Albatross, Leach's and Wilson's Storm-Petrel, Pomarine Jaeger, Common Loon, and Hawaiian Petrel range over the open water in search of food.

To the species · CMECS

Sea ice is frozen seawater that seals the water surface as a floating or landfast pack — this sets the formation apart from the open ocean (A4), where the water stays freely accessible, and from glaciers and land ice, which sit on solid ground and are not formed from frozen seawater. In North America sea ice covers large parts of the Chukchi Sea and adjoining Arctic waters, as at Utqiaġvik, Alaska, where ice fringes the coastline for much of the year. The ice edge, where the pack gives way to open water, matters for birds: food concentrates there as it is carried to the surface, which generally draws species that forage over open water and along ice edges, even though no species is specifically linked to this formation.

To the species

Dunes and sandy beaches are the bare to lightly vegetated sand coast above the average high-tide line, from open beach to the first dune vegetation inland. Unlike salt marsh (B3) the substrate stays sandy and dry rather than clayey and regularly flooded, and unlike sea cliffs (B2) there is no exposed bedrock; the daily tidal flooding found on the tidal flat is also absent here. Along the Atlantic coast, American beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata) builds foredunes on barrier islands, with Uniola paniculata taking over farther south. For birds it is both breeding and resting ground: American Oystercatcher, Sanderling, Dunlin and Brown Pelican breed, forage or roost here, while Snow Bunting and Lapland Longspur winter in the sparse dune vegetation.

To the species · USNVC

Sea cliffs are steep, largely bare rock formations directly exposed to surf and salt-laden wind, from the breaker zone to the edge of the plateau above. They differ from dunes (B1) in lacking loose sand and from salt marsh (B3) in lacking fine sediment; vegetation is limited to moss, lichen and scattered low shrubs rooted in rock crevices. Such cliffs occur from Alaska to Oregon on the Pacific coast, and at sites like Cape St. Mary's, Newfoundland, on the Atlantic side. For birds they are essential colony sites: Northern Gannet, Horned and Tufted Puffin, Double-crested Cormorant and Leach's Storm-Petrel nest here in dense colonies, while Peregrine Falcon uses the ledges as a nest site.

To the species · USNVC

Salt marsh is vegetated, regularly tide-flooded marsh on fine, clayey sediment along sheltered coasts and estuaries. It differs from dunes (B1) in its daily flooding and clay rather than sandy substrate, and from mangrove (B4) in its herbaceous rather than woody cover — mangrove replaces salt marsh south of roughly central Florida. From the Bay of Fundy to Texas, Spartina alterniflora dominates the lowest, daily-flooded zone, with Spartina patens and salt pannes higher up. For birds the marsh is essential foraging and breeding habitat: American Avocet, Black-necked Stilt, Dunlin, Great Egret and Red-winged Blackbird are abundant, while species such as Roseate Spoonbill and White Ibis forage along its creeks.

To the species · USNVC

Mangrove is the woody, tide-dependent forest of salt-tolerant trees that replaces salt marsh (B3) in the subtropical and tropical coastal zone, chiefly in southern Florida and the Caribbean. Unlike herbaceous salt marsh, cover consists of trees with prop or pneumatophore roots; unlike estuaries (B5) the ground is fixed forest rather than open water. Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) forms the outer, most tide-exposed fringe on stilt roots, with black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) and white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) further inland in less-flooded basins. For birds the dense canopy provides colonial breeding habitat: Wood Stork, White Ibis, Great Egret, Roseate Spoonbill and Brown Pelican nest here, while Anhinga forages among the roots.

To the species · USNVC

Estuaries and lagoons are the semi-enclosed, brackish transitional waters where rivers meet the sea or where barrier islands close off a strip of coastal water — CMECS classifies this as the Estuarine System, with an open tidal connection to the sea and measurable freshwater input. They differ from open salt marsh (B3) in being open water themselves, and from mangrove (B4) in lacking fixed woody shoreline vegetation. Examples range from Chesapeake Bay to the Copper River Delta in Alaska. For birds these waters are among the richest on the coast: American White Pelican, Osprey, Bald Eagle, Common Loon and Eared Grebe, plus numerous other grebes, cormorants, gulls and jaegers, forage, roost or winter here in large numbers.

To the species · CMECS

Lakes and ponds are standing waterbodies that hold water year-round, from a small pool to an extensive lake. The border with rivers and streams (C2) lies in the current, largely absent here; the riparian zone (C3) begins where trees and shrubs take over the shoreline; constructed waters (C4) form a separate formation despite a similar look, because human hands dug or dammed them. In North America this ranges from glacially carved boreal lakes in Minnesota, ringed by conifer forest, to shallow lakes farther south. Loons such as the Common Loon, grebes such as the Pied-billed Grebe, raptors such as the Osprey and the Bald Eagle, and waterfowl such as the Mallard find open water to fish, dive, or rest.

To the species · USNVC

Rivers and streams are flowing waters, distinguishing them from the standing lakes and ponds (C1); a river dammed into a reservoir falls under constructed waters (C4) instead. The riparian zone (C3) is the land directly along the bank, while the channel itself, with its current and bed of gravel or rock, belongs to this formation. In North America this ranges from fast mountain rivers such as in Paradise Valley, Montana, to slow lowland rivers. On rocks in the swiftest stretches, attached aquatic plants sometimes grow, a sign of stable, clear current. The American Dipper dives here for prey, the Belted Kingfisher hunts from a branch above the water, and the Osprey and the Bald Eagle fish over the rapids.

To the species · USNVC

The riparian zone is the vegetated strip along lakes (C1) and rivers (C2), where willows, cottonwoods and other broadleaf trees form the transition between open water and drier ground. At constructed waters (C4) this strip is often absent, since the fluctuating water level there prevents tall woody growth. In the western United States the riparian zone, such as along the South Fork of the Snake River in Idaho, forms a narrow band of Populus woodland amid much drier surroundings. Shade, insects and berries draw a broad range of songbirds: the Ruby-throated Hummingbird, the Northern Cardinal, the Cedar Waxwing and the Red-eyed Vireo breed or forage here, while the Great Blue Heron and the Osprey use the nearby water.

To the species · USNVC

Constructed waters are human-dug or dammed waterbodies such as reservoirs, irrigation ponds and stock ponds; what sets them apart from natural lakes and ponds (C1) is their origin and fluctuating water level, which usually prevents a stable riparian zone (C3) from forming. A dammed river (C2) falls under this formation below the dam wall. In North America, Lake Mead in Nevada, impounded by the Hoover Dam, is an extreme example: a vast waterbody with bare shorelines exposed by drawdown, set amid an otherwise dry desert. Such waters draw shorebirds and waterbirds: the American Avocet and the Black-necked Stilt forage the exposed banks, while the American White Pelican, the Eared Grebe and the Osprey use the open water to fish.

To the species · USNVC

Peatland and muskeg is an acidic, Sphagnum-covered wetland: nutrient-poorer than the freshwater marsh (D2), treeless or with only stunted trees compared with the closed-canopy boreal conifer forest (G2), and lacking the open water of lakes and ponds (C1). In North America this type ranges from Alaska to the Great Lakes, with the most extensive bog systems in southeastern Alaska, as on Kupreanof Island: hummocks and hollows covered in Sphagnum, small cranberry and bog-laurel, with scattered stunted black spruce. Migrating Parasitic Jaegers and Pomarine Jaegers pass over these coastal bogs on the way to their Arctic breeding grounds; in Alaska the Rustic Bunting has also been recorded here as a vagrant.

To the species · USNVC

The freshwater marsh is a shallow, nutrient-rich wetland with standing emergent vegetation, less acidic than the peatland (D1), and holding water longer than the briefly saturated wet meadow (D3); against open lakes (C1), dense stem vegetation defines it, not open water. In North America it ranges from the Great Lakes to the prairie potholes of the northern Great Plains, with Horicon Marsh in Wisconsin an example: cattail and bulrush stands in water from a few centimeters to about a meter deep. For birds it is a nursery and foraging ground for herons such as the Great Egret, ducks such as the Mallard, marsh birds such as the American Coot and the Sandhill Crane, and songbirds such as the Red-winged Blackbird.

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Wet meadow and sedge marsh is briefly and shallowly saturated compared with the freshwater marsh (D2), with a low cover of sedges and grasses rather than tall emergent reeds, and wetter than the drier tallgrass prairie (E1) and managed pastureland (I4) it grades into. In North America this type lies mainly in the transition zone between the Great Lakes and the boreal region, as at Lake Noquebay in Wisconsin: tussocks of Carex sedges and wet-prairie grasses on ground that floods in spring and stays damp through summer. Geese such as the Canada Goose and the Cackling Goose graze and nest here, the Red-winged Blackbird breeds in the low cover, and the Lapland Longspur visits such damp flats on migration.

To the species · USNVC

Swamp forest is a closed-canopy forest on permanently to seasonally flooded ground, distinct from the open freshwater marsh (D2), which lacks a tree layer, and from the dry deciduous forest (G1), which does not flood; against the narrow riparian corridor along rivers (C3), swamp forest forms an extensive, continuous forest type. In North America it is characteristic of the southern coastal plain, as in southern Louisiana: bald-cypress (Taxodium distichum) with knee roots and water tupelo stand in permanent water, draped in Spanish moss. For birds this type offers nesting sites high in the canopy and foraging ground in the flooded understory, with species such as the Anhinga, the Wood Stork, and the Carolina Wren.

To the species · USNVC

Tallgrass prairie is the moistest of the grassland formations: tall, dense C4 grasses on deep soils, without the scattered oaks of savanna (E4). Moving west, where soils grow drier and shallower, the vegetation gradually gives way to the lower, more open shortgrass prairie (E2). In North America tallgrass prairie once stretched from southern Manitoba to the Gulf coast of Texas; major remnants survive in the Flint Hills of Kansas. Grasses such as Andropogon gerardii and Sorghastrum nutans reach well over two meters by late summer, with under ten percent tree cover. The dense growth shelters the Northern Bobwhite, while the Common Nighthawk hunts above the grass canopy and the Brown-headed Cowbird favors the open, grazer-influenced edges.

To the species · USNVC

Shortgrass prairie and steppe is North America's driest grassland: short, hardy grasses on shallow soil, occurring where rainfall is too low for the tall grasses of tallgrass prairie (E1) and relief too low for alpine meadow (E3). It spans the western Great Plains from southeastern Alberta to Nebraska and Wyoming; the dossier anchors it at Dawes County, Nebraska. Grasses such as Bouteloua gracilis and Hesperostipa comata form a sparse sod rarely more than a few decimeters tall, interspersed with low shrubs. The wide, open plain draws ground-nesting Horned Larks and Killdeer, hunting Red-tailed Hawks, and, in winter, northern visitors such as the Snow Bunting and the Snowy Owl.

To the species · USNVC

Alpine meadow is the treeless vegetation above timberline: low, cushion-forming plants and short graminoids on rocky, frost-worked soil, where conditions are too harsh for the conifer forest or shrubland below. In North America this zone lies in the Rocky Mountains, from New Mexico to Alberta, with a photo site in the Flat Tops of Colorado; the guide also places Hawaii's high volcanic slopes within this type. Plants such as Geum rossii and Silene acaulis form a fine mosaic of dense turf and bare ground. The open, windswept heights draw the American Pipit as a breeder; the Northern Wheatear and Rufous Hummingbird forage there, and the Hawaiian Petrel and Nene use the volcanic version of this habitat.

To the species · USNVC

Savanna and oak woodland is the half-open tree vegetation between grassland and closed forest: scattered, broad-crowned oaks over a grass understory, kept open by regular light fire. The boundary with tallgrass prairie (E1) lies where the first trees appear, while denser canopy closure marks the gradual shift into closed oak forest. In North America this type ranges from California — the dossier anchors it at Mount Diablo — to the eastern states, with species such as Quercus douglasii and Quercus lobata as low-branching trees five to fifteen meters tall. The open structure draws the Wild Turkey and Northern Bobwhite as ground foragers, the Red-tailed Hawk hunting from treetops, and cavity nesters such as the Northern Flicker and White-breasted Nuthatch.

To the species · USNVC

Arctic tundra is the treeless vegetation north of and above the treeline, on permanently frozen ground. Its boundary with krummholz and dwarf scrub (F4) lies at the treeline itself, where stunted trees give way to a cover of dwarf shrubs, sedges and mosses; farther south the tundra passes into closed boreal forest. In North America it stretches across northern Alaska and the Brooks Range, with low willows, Dryas, cottongrass tussocks and lichens over a short growing season on permafrost. This open, flat vegetation supports ground-nesting shorebirds such as Dunlin and Sanderling, jaegers such as Parasitic Jaeger and Pomarine Jaeger, Snowy Owl, Snow Bunting, Lapland Longspur, Horned Lark and Northern Wheatear.

To the species · USNVC

Chaparral is the dense, evergreen shrub vegetation of California's Mediterranean climate, with hard, small leaves. Its boundary with sagebrush steppe (F3) lies in climate and composition: chaparral grows in the wetter coastal strip and low mountains, sagebrush steppe in the cold, dry interior dominated by Artemisia. Where the shrubs grow taller and close ranks, chaparral passes into oak woodland. In North America it covers the slopes of the Santa Monica Mountains and similar California ranges up to about 2,000 meters, forming dense, nearly impenetrable stands of chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum), Ceanothus and manzanita, adapted to periodic fire. The shrubs provide cover for Greater Roadrunner, Bushtit, Wrentit and Phainopepla.

To the species · USNVC

Sagebrush steppe is the cold, dry interior shrub-steppe dominated by Artemisia species such as big sagebrush. It differs from chaparral (F2) in its cold, dry interior climate rather than the moist Mediterranean coastal climate, and from krummholz and dwarf scrub (F4) in occurring at lower, warmer elevations, below the subalpine belt. In North America it covers vast, open plains from the Great Basin to the northern Great Plains, such as near Jordan, Montana, with a sparse, grey-green shrub layer of knee-high sagebrush over thin soils. This open, low-growing vegetation offers little cover and mainly attracts birds adapted to bare, arid ground and scattered shrubs.

To the species · USNVC

Krummholz and dwarf scrub is the wind-sheared, stunted vegetation just above the treeline of high mountains: dwarfed spruces and firs mixed with a heath-like layer of dwarf shrubs. Below this belt stands closed subalpine conifer forest; above it the vegetation thins into bare, rocky alpine fellfield without woody cover. Unlike arctic tundra (F1), which lies at sea level in the far north, this formation results from elevation rather than latitude. In North America it occurs on peaks such as Mount Washington, New Hampshire, and in ranges from Alaska to the Rocky Mountains, with spruces and firs pruned by wind and ice into shrub form. The scattered, sheltered clumps of trees and shrubs hold Siberian Accentor, Northern Shrike, Arctic Warbler and Northern Wheatear.

To the species · USNVC

Thickets and woodland edge cover the dense, mostly low vegetation of shrubs, young trees and vines along forest margins, hedgerows and regenerating clearings. Unlike the climate-bound formations chaparral (F2), sagebrush steppe (F3) and krummholz (F4), this is a structural, often transitional stage: where the canopy closes it becomes forest, where the shrub layer thins out it leaves open grassland or farmland. In North America the formation ranges from coastal shrubland on Cape Cod, Massachusetts — important habitat for the New England cottontail — to comparable shrub and edge habitat across the continent and in Hawaii. The dense, often berry-bearing shrub layer provides cover and food for Northern Cardinal, Song Sparrow, Northern Mockingbird, Cedar Waxwing, Mourning Dove, Blue Jay, Black-and-white Warbler and Red-eyed Vireo, among others.

To the species · USNVC

Deciduous forest covers the broadleaf forests of the eastern and central continent, with a canopy that colors and drops each autumn. Northward it grades into Boreal conifer forest, where spruce and balsam fir replace maple and beech; westward into the drier Pinyon-juniper and dry pine woodland, and on wet ground into Swamp forest, while a narrow fringe is called Thickets and woodland edge. Sugar maple, American beech (Fagus grandifolia) and basswood form the core, as at Rock Creek Park near Washington, D.C., on nutrient-rich, glacially formed soil. Its canopy holds bark-climbers such as the White-breasted Nuthatch and Brown Creeper, songbirds such as the Red-eyed Vireo and Black-and-white Warbler, and cavity nesters such as the Black-capped Chickadee.

To the species · USNVC

Boreal conifer forest is the predominantly evergreen conifer forest of the far north, dominated by spruce, balsam fir and birch. Northward it thins into the scattered trees of Arctic tundra; southward Deciduous forest takes over. Wet basins within this forest are treated separately as Peatland and muskeg, and at the ridge crest it gives way to the wind-formed Krummholz and dwarf scrub. Photographed in Quebec, where black spruce and jack pine form the boreal taiga stretching to Alaska, with a ground layer of mosses, lichens and blueberry on acidic, nutrient-poor soil. These conifer stands draw the Red-breasted Nuthatch, the Brown Creeper and the Golden-crowned Kinglet, in clearings the Northern Shrike, and as irregular winterers the Siberian Accentor and Rustic Bunting.

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Montane and coastal conifer forest covers the conifer forests of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast, from lowland rainforest to high-mountain forest. It differs from the flatter Boreal conifer forest through relief and, along the coast, through far higher rainfall; upslope comes Krummholz and dwarf scrub and, higher still, Alpine meadow, while on the drier eastern flank Pinyon-juniper and dry pine woodland takes over. Photographed at Olympic National Park, Washington, where giant Douglas-fir, western hemlock and Sitka spruce grow over a floor carpeted with moss and ferns, in one of the wettest climates on the continent. These forests hold the White-breasted Nuthatch, the Red-breasted Nuthatch, the Golden-crowned Kinglet and the Ruby-crowned Kinglet, along the west coast the Rufous Hummingbird, while the Bald Eagle nests here along rivers and shorelines.

To the species · USNVC

Pinyon-juniper and dry pine woodland is the open, low-statured conifer woodland of the dry mountain ranges between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. Downslope comes the shrub cover of Sagebrush steppe, and on the driest ground Desert and semi-desert; upslope the wetter Montane and coastal conifer forest takes over once the pines are replaced by Douglas-fir. Photographed in Elko County, Nevada, where singleleaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla) and Utah juniper form an open canopy no taller than ten meters, on rocky soil between 1500 and 2600 meters elevation. This dry woodland holds the Bushtit and the Phainopepla as characteristic residents, bark-climbers such as the White-breasted Nuthatch, and songbirds such as the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher and Blue Jay.

To the species · USNVC

Subtropical and tropical forest covers the frost-free forests of the far south: tropical hardwood hammocks on limestone ridges and the cypress-dominated strand and dome swamp forests of South Florida and Hawaii. The boundary with Swamp forest lies at the transition to open freshwater marsh; along the coast comes Mangrove, and where the forest opens, Savanna and oak woodland. Photographed at Fakahatchee Strand, Florida, where bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) grows in linear strands, bordered by hardwoods such as gumbo limbo and West Indian mahogany on higher ridges, with orchids and bromeliads in the shaded canopy. On the mainland the Plain Chachalaca is characteristic, together with the Coppery-tailed Trogon; on Hawaii the same formation holds an entirely different community, from the Red-crested Cardinal to the endangered Iiwi and Hawaii Amakihi.

To the species · USNVC

Desert and semi-desert is the vegetation of warm, dry lowlands: open shrubs, cacti and drought-tolerant grasses on stable gravel and sand soils, unlike the bare rock of rock, cliff and talus (H2) and the almost unvegetated sand and alkali flats (H4). In North America the formation runs from the Mojave and Sonoran deserts to the Chihuahuan Desert, with Larrea tridentata and Fouquieria splendens as characteristic shrubs and, around Saguaro National Park in Arizona, the saguaro cactus as the defining species; annual rainfall usually stays below 250 mm. Greater Roadrunner, Phainopepla and Black-tailed Gnatcatcher nest in the scrub, while Verdin and Pyrrhuloxia forage there.

To the species · USNVC

Rock, cliff and talus covers sparsely vegetated rock walls, ledges and scree slopes with almost no soil — unlike the shrubs and cacti on stable ground in desert and semi-desert (H1) and the bare, flat surfaces of sand and alkali flats (H4); plant cover here is limited to lichens, cushion plants and occasional crevice specialists. In North America the formation runs from canyon walls on the Colorado Plateau, as at Colorado National Monument, to sea cliffs along the Pacific coast. Peregrine Falcon and American Dipper nest on ledges above canyons and Northern Wheatear among the talus, while coastal cliffs hold colonies of Horned Puffin and storm-petrels.

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Polar desert and glacier foreland covers the bleakest ground of the far north: boulders, scree and fresh glacial debris with less than ten percent plant cover, where mosses and lichens dominate and vascular plants are limited to pioneers such as Draba and Saxifraga species. This sets the formation apart from the less extreme rock, cliff and talus (H2) farther south. In North America it occurs scattered from Alaska across northern Canada, on ground exposed by frost or, as at the Kennicott Glacier in Alaska, by recently retreating ice. Sanderling forages here on passage, Snowy Owl nests on the bare ground and Northern Wheatear settles among the debris.

To the species · USNVC

Sand and alkali flats covers the flat, often bare floors of former lakes and dry playas: fine sediment with a salt or gypsum crust, sometimes fringed by sparse salt-tolerant grasses such as Distichlis spicata, unlike the shrubs of desert and semi-desert (H1) and the rocky, sloping ground of rock, cliff and talus (H2). In North America such flats form the floor of dried basins across the Great Basin and, as at White Sands National Park in New Mexico, extensive gypsum sand and alkali flats. American Avocet and Black-necked Stilt forage along the damp margin after rain, while Horned Lark breeds on the bare, open ground itself.

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Arable land is ground that is regularly plowed and sown with annual crops: grain, corn, soybeans and other row crops. It differs from gardens and parks (I2) in scale and the absence of ornamental planting, from orchard and vineyard (I3) in lacking perennial woody crops, and from pasture and rangeland (I4) in that the soil is turned over each year rather than grazed. In North America the largest expanses lie across the Midwest Corn Belt and the wheat fields of the Great Plains, forming large, flat, treeless parcels that run together for miles. Such open expanses draw ground-nesting birds and winter visitors of open country, such as Horned Lark, Snow Bunting, Lapland Longspur, Killdeer, Turkey Vulture and Wild Turkey.

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Gardens and parks covers managed ornamental greenery in and around towns and cities: private gardens, street plantings, city parks, cemeteries and golf courses, with lawn, flower beds and planted trees. It differs from arable land (I1) in that no crop is harvested and the plots are far smaller and more varied, and from orchard and vineyard (I3) in that the trees and shrubs serve an ornamental purpose rather than standing in rows for a fruit or grape harvest. Characteristic of North America are large city parks with mature broadleaf trees set among high-rise buildings, such as Central Park in New York, alongside countless smaller suburban front yards. Such green islands within built-up land attract a wide range of birds, from Northern Cardinal and Blue Jay to House Sparrow, Northern Mockingbird, Northern Flicker and Ruby-throated Hummingbird.

To the species · USNVC

Orchard and vineyard covers plots of perennial woody crops planted in rows: fruit and nut trees and grapevines. That sets the formation apart from arable land (I1), where annual crops are resown each year, and from gardens and parks (I2), where the planting serves an ornamental purpose rather than a harvest. It also differs from pasture and rangeland (I4), which is open grassland without crop rows. In North America the formation is concentrated in mild-climate regions: apple orchards in Washington State, citrus groves in Florida, and the vineyards of Napa Valley in California with their low, trellis-trained vines set out in rows. The low, dense rows offer cover and perches to species including Cedar Waxwing, Rose-ringed Parakeet, Plain Chachalaca and Northern House Wren.

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Pasture and rangeland covers grassland maintained by livestock grazing or by annual mowing for hay. Unlike arable land (I1), the turf here stays intact and the ground is not plowed, and unlike orchard and vineyard (I3), crop rows and woody planting are entirely absent. In North America the formation ranges from the vast cattle ranches on the shortgrass prairie and dry rangelands of the West, as in eastern Oregon, to the smaller hay meadows of the Midwest and East. The result is an open, closely grazed landscape that closely resembles natural grassland but is managed more intensively. Such pastures attract raptors such as Red-tailed Hawk and Turkey Vulture, as well as ground dwellers such as Greater Roadrunner, Killdeer and Northern Bobwhite.

To the species · USNVC

Town and city is the inhabited, vegetated part of Formation Group J: neighbourhoods, villages and city centres with gardens, lawns, parks and street trees. It differs from harbour and industry (J2) in lacking large-scale industrial grounds, and from quarry and mining (J3) in having vegetated, unexcavated ground. In North America the formation ranges from low-rise neighbourhoods with grid streets, as around Layton, Utah, to densely built downtowns. Buildings offer artificial nest sites — ledges standing in for cliffs, chimneys for hollow trees — while gardens and parks feed House Sparrow, European Starling, American Robin, Northern Mockingbird and Chimney Swift, among others, plus introduced species such as Rose-ringed Parakeet.

To the species · USNVC

Harbour and industry covers the working, largely unvegetated grounds of Formation Group J: harbours, quays, storage yards, refineries and factory sites. Where J1 still has gardens, here hard paving and artificial substrate dominate — quay walls and riprap replacing natural rock or tidal flat (compare Formation Group A). Against quarry and mining (J3), this formation is about storage and processing, not extraction. In North America it ranges from port cities such as Anchorage, Alaska, to inland warehouse districts. The hard structures serve as artificial cliff for Brown Pelican, Brown Booby, Magnificent Frigatebird and Great Black-backed Gull, while Killdeer uses the bare ground and House Sparrow the buildings.

To the species · CMECS

Quarry and mining is the extractive part of Formation Group J: open quarries, gravel pits, surface mines and their steep faces. Unlike harbour and industry (J2), where material is processed, here material is removed from the ground; unlike town and city (J1), vegetation is largely absent and the ground lies bare. The artificial faces resemble natural cliffs but are fresh and unvegetated. In North America the formation ranges from gravel pits to former mining districts such as Idaho Springs, Colorado, with steep, bare walls and water-filled pits. No species in the guide are linked to this formation: bare ground and steep walls chiefly attract birds seeking open terrain and rocky nest sites, and resulting pools offer temporary water to passage birds.

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Landfill and wastewater is the waste-handling part of Formation Group J: municipal landfills and the basins of sewage treatment plants. It differs from quarry and mining (J3), where material is extracted rather than deposited, and from harbour and industry (J2) in its focus on waste disposal rather than production; settling basins differ from natural marshes in their straight, engineered shape. In North America, active landfills such as the one at Brookhaven, Long Island, form open waste fields over which birds circle, while treatment basins elsewhere provide open water where no natural pool exists. This formation chiefly attracts Great Black-backed Gull and Ring-billed Gull, foraging on refuse, and European Starling, feeding there in large flocks.

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