Os habitats dos Andes e da costa oeste

The deep water beyond the edge of the continental shelf, where the seabed drops quickly to thousands of metres, including the ocean between the mainland and the Galápagos. The shelf edge is the boundary with Humboldt Current and inshore waters. Seabirds that breed on the Galápagos range out here to feed: Waved Albatross, Galapagos Petrel, Galapagos Shearwater, Wedge-rumped Storm Petrel and Swallow-tailed Gull, which hunts at night. Markham's Storm Petrel and Ringed Storm-Petrel nest far inland in the desert and find their food here. From the south, Salvin's Albatross, Pink-footed Shearwater and Sooty Shearwater visit these waters outside the breeding season, and Red-necked Phalarope and Red Phalarope winter at sea in large flocks.

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The water above the continental shelf, from the low-water line to the shelf edge, where Open ocean begins. Off Peru and south-western Ecuador the Humboldt Current pushes cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface, with vast shoals of anchoveta at the base of the food web; further north, in the Gulf of Guayaquil and the Panama Bight, the inshore water is warm. Over the cold sea Peruvian Booby, Peruvian Pelican, Guanay Cormorant and Inca Tern hunt in large flocks, Peruvian Diving-Petrel dives for small fish and crustaceans and Humboldt Penguin swims along the coast. Grey Gull and, in winter, Franklin's Gull are numerous. In the warmer north Blue-footed Booby, Brown Pelican and Magnificent Frigatebird fish. During El Niño the sea warms, the anchoveta disappears and many seabirds die or leave.

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Beaches of sand and shell grit, beach ridges and the dunes behind them, along the whole Pacific coast but most extensive on the desert coast of Peru, where sand often passes directly into barren desert. Where the shore turns rocky, Rocky shore and sea cliffs begins. At the tideline Sanderling and Eurasian Whimbrel chase the waves, and Snowy Plover nests on the open sand. Peruvian Tern lays its eggs on bare flats behind the beach and fishes in the surf. Coastal Miner runs over beach and dunes. Belcher's Gull is the common large gull, and Grey Gull, which nests far inland in the desert, feeds here in flocks.

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Rocky shoreline with surf, rock platforms exposed at low tide and steep cliffs rising straight from the sea, especially along the south coast of Peru and the Paracas peninsula. Bare islands with large breeding colonies belong to Guano islands and seabird colonies, and sandy shore to Sandy beach and dunes. On the rocks in the surf Peruvian Seaside Cinclodes, a species found only along this coast, forages among seaweed and mussels together with Blackish Oystercatcher. Red-legged Cormorant nests on ledges in the cliffs, Inca Tern in crevices and holes, and Humboldt Penguin in caves at the foot. In winter Surfbird, Wandering Tattler and Ruddy Turnstone feed on the wet rocks.

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Bare, dry islands and headlands off the coast where seabirds nest at enormous densities and their droppings build up into layers of guano, harvested as fertiliser for centuries. Well known are the Ballestas and Chincha islands off Peru and Isla de la Plata off Ecuador; the breeding shores of the Galápagos fall under Galápagos coast and lava fields. The three classic guano birds are Guanay Cormorant, Peruvian Booby and Peruvian Pelican, which nest in dense colonies on the flat summits. Humboldt Penguin and Peruvian Diving-Petrel dig nests in the guano, and Inca Tern breeds in crevices. On Isla de la Plata, in warmer water, Blue-footed Booby, Nazca Booby, Red-billed Tropicbird and Magnificent Frigatebird breed.

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Tidal forest of mangrove trees on muddy shores flooded at high tide, along the warm coast of Tumbes in northern Peru, around the Gulf of Guayaquil and along the Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador, where the Chocó rainforest reaches down to the mangroves. Bare mudflats in front belong to Tidal flats, lagoons and estuaries, and the mangroves of the Galápagos to Galápagos coast and lava fields. Mangrove Rail and Rufous-necked Wood Rail creep over the mud among the prop roots, Mangrove Warbler sings in the canopy and Common Black Hawk hunts crabs. Yellow-crowned Night Heron, Tricolored Heron and American White Ibis feed at low tide, Roseate Spoonbill feeds in the creeks, and herons nest in colonies in the trees.

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Flats of mud and sand exposed at low tide, brackish coastal lagoons and river mouths, without taller vegetation. Where salt-tolerant plants cover the higher parts, Salt marsh and salt pans begins. Large mudflats lie around the Gulf of Guayaquil; on the dry coast of Peru there are lagoons such as the Virrilá estuary near Sechura and the Mejía lagoons near Arequipa, where Chilean Flamingo feeds. From September to April Western Sandpiper, Semipalmated Sandpiper, Eurasian Whimbrel, Willet, Grey Plover and Short-billed Dowitcher are numerous. Black Skimmer rests on the sandbars, White-cheeked Pintail swims in the lagoons and Great Grebe dives there for fish.

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Low vegetation of salt grass and succulents on the higher parts of the coast that flood only at spring tides or in high seas, with bare salt flats and saltworks behind. Exposed mud and open lagoons belong to Tidal flats, lagoons and estuaries; the salt flats of the altiplano to Altiplano salt lakes and salt flats. The salt pans of the Santa Elena peninsula in Ecuador are known for the large numbers of Wilson's Phalarope that stop there on migration, together with Stilt Sandpiper, Lesser Yellowlegs and Chilean Flamingo. Black-necked Stilt nests along the edges of the pans, Snowy Plover on the bare salt crust, and Snowy Egret hunts in the shallow water.

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Still fresh water in the lowlands: oxbow lakes cut off from meandering Amazonian rivers, known in Peru as cochas, the shallow lakes of the Beni in Bolivia and reservoirs on the dry coastal plain. Floating plants such as water hyacinth and the giant water lily <em>Victoria amazonica</em> cover parts of the water. Reeds, grass and marsh along the shore belong to Lowland marshes and wet meadows. Hoatzin lives in the bushes at the edge of cochas, Horned Screamer calls from the bank and Wattled Jacana walks over the floating leaves. Anhinga and Neotropic Cormorant dry their wings on branches, Sungrebe and Agami Heron keep hidden under overhanging branches, and Large-billed Tern fishes over open water.

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Freshwater lakes and lagoons high in the Andes, from small glacial lakes in the páramo of Colombia and Ecuador to Lake Titicaca and Lake Junín on the puna of Peru and Bolivia. Fringes of totora reed line many lakes. Saline lakes belong to Altiplano salt lakes and salt flats, and the wet bogs around them to Andean bogs and bofedales. Two grebes live nowhere else: the flightless Titicaca Grebe on Lake Titicaca and a few nearby lakes, and Junin Grebe on Lake Junín. Giant Coot builds large floating nests, and Andean Coot, Silvery Grebe, Puna Teal, Yellow-billed Pintail and Crested Duck are common sights. Andean Gull nests along the shores; in the páramo Andean Teal is the usual duck.

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Saline and brackish lakes and vast salt flats on the dry puna of south-western Bolivia and southern Peru, at roughly 3600 to well over 4500 metres, such as the salares of Uyuni and Coipasa, Lake Poopó and the coloured lagoons of south-western Bolivia. Freshwater lakes belong to Andean and high-plateau lakes, and coastal salt pans to Salt marsh and salt pans. In the shallow water, rich in algae and small crustaceans, three species of flamingo feed: Andean Flamingo, James's Flamingo and Chilean Flamingo. Andean Avocet and Puna Plover nest along the shores, Puna Teal swims in the brackish lagoons, and Baird's Sandpiper and Wilson's Phalarope from North America stop here on migration.

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Fast, clear water with boulders, rapids and waterfalls, from the streams of the high Andes to the wild rivers that plunge through the gorges of the eastern slope and the western slopes. The forest along the banks belongs to the Andean montane forests or to Riparian woodland of the Andes and coastal valleys, and where the current slows in the lowlands, Lowland rivers and sandbars begins. Torrent Duck swims against the current and rests on rocks in mid-stream, and White-capped Dipper dives into the white water. Torrent Tyrannulet and Black Phoebe hunt from stones. Lower down, at the foot of the Andes, Fasciated Tiger Heron, Sunbittern and Buff-rumped Warbler live, and White-collared Swift nests behind waterfalls.

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Broad, slow lowland rivers with fluctuating water levels, such as the Marañón, Ucayali, Napo, Madre de Dios and Mamoré in Amazonia, and the Guayas and the rivers of the Chocó on the Pacific side. In the dry season large sand and gravel bars are exposed; young growth on islands belongs to Várzea, igapó and river islands. On the bare bars Large-billed Tern, Yellow-billed Tern, Black Skimmer, Collared Plover and Sand-colored Nighthawk nest, and Pied Plover walks along the waterline. Ladder-tailed Nightjar rests on the bars by day, White-banded Swallow hunts low over the water, and Ringed Kingfisher fishes from bankside branches. Along rivers in south-western Amazonia, Orinoco Goose grazes on the banks.

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Herbaceous marshes with reeds, bulrushes and tall grasses, and wet meadows that flood in the rainy season, in the Amazon lowlands and on the Pacific side, from La Segua in Manabí to the Pantanos de Villa near Lima. Where trees or palms stand in the marsh it is Palm swamps and swamp forest; open water belongs to Lowland lakes and oxbows, and flooded savanna to the lowland savannas. In Amazonia Wattled Jacana, Purple Gallinule, Limpkin, Snail Kite, White-headed Marsh Tyrant and Black-capped Donacobius are typical. In the totora reedbeds of the Peruvian desert coast live Many-colored Rush Tyrant, Wren-like Rushbird and Plumbeous Rail.

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Cushion bogs, wet meadows and bofedales high in the Andes, mostly above 3500 metres: in the páramo of Colombia and Ecuador and on the puna of Peru and Bolivia. Bofedales are waterlogged flats of dense, hard cushion plants such as <em>Distichia muscoides</em>, threaded with pools and rivulets, and are important grazing grounds for alpacas and llamas. Open lake water belongs to Andean and high-plateau lakes. Andean Goose grazes in pairs and flocks, Puna Ibis probes the wet ground, and Andean Lapwing and Grey-breasted Seedsnipe are common. Along the rivulets the scarce Diademed Sandpiper-Plover, White-winged Cinclodes and Andean Negrito forage. In the páramo bogs of the north lives Noble Snipe.

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Forest along the great rivers of Amazonia that floods for months every year: várzea along whitewater rivers carrying silt from the Andes, such as the Amazon, Ucayali and Napo, and the poorer igapó along blackwater rivers such as the Nanay. Also included is the young growth on river islands, with <em>Tessaria</em>, <em>Cecropia</em>, willows and tall cane. In the Chocó, too, forests along rivers are periodically flooded. Permanently wet palm swamps belong to Palm swamps and swamp forest. Hoatzin and Amazonian Umbrellabird are typical. River islands have their own specialists: Black-and-white Antbird, Castelnau's Antshrike, White-bellied Spinetail, Parker's Spinetail, Lesser Wagtail-Tyrant and River Tyrannulet.

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Permanently wet swamp forests in the Amazon lowlands, often dominated by the moriche palm, <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em>, which forms extensive palm swamps known in Peru as aguajales. Large aguajales lie in Pacaya-Samiria and around Iquitos, among other places. Forest flooded only in the high-water season belongs to Várzea, igapó and river islands, and open marsh without trees to Lowland marshes and wet meadows. Many birds here are tied to the palms: Red-bellied Macaw eats the fruits and nests in dead trunks, as does Blue-and-yellow Macaw. Point-tailed Palmcreeper searches the palm fronds for insects, Sulphury Flycatcher nests in the crowns and Fork-tailed Palm Swift builds in the hanging dead leaves.

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Narrow gallery woods and riverside scrub along rivers and streams in the Andes and in the desert valleys of the Peruvian coast, where the water draws a green ribbon through barren slopes. In the Andes alder, <em>Alnus acuminata</em>, is common; in the coastal valleys willow, <em>Tessaria</em> and algarrobo. Lowland floodplain forest belongs to Várzea, igapó and river islands, and the fast water itself to Andean rivers and torrents. In the coastal valleys Amazilia Hummingbird, Oasis Hummingbird, Vermilion Flycatcher, Long-tailed Mockingbird, Groove-billed Ani and West Peruvian Dove are common, and in southern Peru Slender-billed Finch lives here. In the Andean valleys Chiguanco Thrush and Golden-billed Saltator are regular residents of the riverside scrub.

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Very wet, tall rainforest of the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and north-western Ecuador, one of the rainiest regions on earth. The forest is dense, full of palms, epiphytes and mosses, and cut through by countless rivers. Hills above about 900 m belong to Northern Andean subtropical forest, and further south it grades into Western Ecuador humid forest. The Chocó has many species of its own: Choco Toucan and Five-colored Barbet sit in the canopy, Choco Trogon and Stub-tailed Antbird in the lower layers, Black-tipped Cotinga stands out above the treetops and Scarlet-breasted Dacnis forages in flowering trees. Baudo Oropendola lives in Colombia, and Harpy Eagle still hunts monkeys and sloths here.

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Evergreen and semi-evergreen forest of the lowlands and low coastal ranges of central Ecuador, the transition between the wet Chocó to the north and the dry Tumbes region to the south. Much of it has been cleared for bananas, cacao and pasture; forest survives mainly in the hills of the coastal ranges. Wetter forest to the north belongs to Chocó rainforest, forest that stands bare in the dry season to Tumbesian dry forest and thorn scrub. Characteristic birds are Grey-backed Hawk, Pale-mandibled Aracari, Yellow-throated Toucan, Orange-fronted Barbet, Ochraceous Attila and Purple-throated Fruitcrow. Great Green Macaw still lives in the last large forests of the coastal ranges.

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Tall, closed rainforest on ground that does not flood, spread across the Amazonian lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. It is the most extensive forest type in the guide, with giant trees such as the ceiba, <em>Ceiba pentandra</em>, and in the south-west the Brazil nut, <em>Bertholletia excelsa</em>. On poor white sand grows low, thin white-sand forest (varillal), as around Iquitos. Forest along the rivers that is regularly under water belongs to Várzea, igapó and river islands, the hills at the foot of the Andes to Eastern Andean foothill forest. Great Tinamou and Razor-billed Curassow walk the forest floor, Black-spotted Bare-Eye follows army ants, White-throated Toucan sits in the canopy and the call of Screaming Piha rings out everywhere. Harpy Eagle nests in the tallest trees. White-sand forest has its own species such as Allpahuayo Antbird and Mishana Tyrannulet.

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Forest in which dense stands of spiny Guadua bamboo, <em>Guadua weberbaueri</em> and <em>Guadua sarcocarpa</em>, dominate the scene, mainly in the south-west of Amazonia (Madre de Dios, Pando) and at the foot of the Andes. The bamboo flowers together after decades, then dies back and grows up again, so the forest is constantly changing. Mixed rainforest without bamboo belongs to Amazonian terra firme rainforest. A group of birds is largely tied to bamboo: Bamboo Antshrike, Manu Antbird, Goeldi's Antbird, Striated Antbird, Large-headed Flatbill, White-cheeked Tody-Flycatcher, Flammulated Bamboo Tyrant and Peruvian Recurvebill. Rufous-headed Woodpecker is a rare bamboo specialist.

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Hill and foothill forest on the eastern flank of the Andes, from about 400 to 1200 m, where the Amazonian lowlands rise into the mountains. The forest grows on steep slopes cut by streams and catches a great deal of rain. The flat lowlands belong to Amazonian terra firme rainforest, higher montane forest to Northern Andean subtropical forest or Lower Yungas forest. Lowland and montane birds mix here, and several species are tied to this narrow belt, such as Coppery-chested Jacamar, Fiery-throated Fruiteater, Cerulean-capped Manakin in Peru and Wire-crested Thorntail. Golden-collared Toucanet keeps to the middle storey, Amazonian Umbrellabird displays in the treetops and Military Macaw flies in pairs along the slopes.

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Young regrowth, abandoned clearings, roadside scrub and the edges of old forest in the lowlands on both sides of the Andes. It is a fast-changing landscape of pioneer trees such as <em>Cecropia</em>, tangles and lianas that develops after logging or abandoned farming. Open fields and pasture belong to Farmland and built-up land, closed old forest to the other formations of Humid lowland forest. The birds are mostly widespread species of open and semi-open country: Roadside Hawk, Smooth-billed Ani, Great Kiskadee, Blue-grey Tanager, Blue-black Grassquit and Yellow-rumped Cacique. East of the Andes Silver-beaked Tanager is common, west of the Andes Flame-rumped Tanager.

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Seasonal dry forest and thorn scrub of south-western Ecuador and north-western Peru, which leafs out green in the rainy season and stands largely bare for the rest of the year. On the hills grows ceibo forest with thick-trunked ceibo, <em>Ceiba trichistandra</em>, and palo santo, <em>Bursera graveolens</em>; on the flat land of Tumbes and Piura open algarrobo scrub of <em>Prosopis pallida</em> prevails. More humid forest to the north belongs to Western Ecuador humid forest, the dry interior valleys to Marañón and northern inter-Andean dry forest. Typical birds are Rufous-headed Chachalaca, Red-masked Parakeet, Grey-cheeked Parakeet, Ecuadorian Trogon, Pale-legged Hornero, Fasciated Wren and Tumbes Sparrow. The rare Peruvian Plantcutter lives in the algarrobo scrub of north-western Peru.

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Dry forest, cactus scrub and bare dry slopes in the deep valleys of the northern Andes, where the mountains block the rain. The largest and richest area is the valley of the Marañón in northern Peru; smaller dry valleys lie in Ecuador and Colombia, such as at Huancabamba, Jubones, Chota and Patía. Columnar cacti, thorny shrubs and low deciduous trees set the scene. The coastal dry forest belongs to Tumbesian dry forest and thorn scrub, the dry valleys of central Peru and Bolivia to Central Andean dry valleys. The Marañón is rich in species of its own, such as Yellow-faced Parrotlet, Maranon Crescentchest, Maranon Thrush, Chestnut-backed Thornbird, Buff-bellied Tanager, Maranon Pigeon, Grey-winged Inca Finch and Buff-bridled Inca Finch.

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Dry scrub, cactus slopes and remnants of dry forest in the deep valleys of central and southern Peru and Bolivia, such as those of the Mantaro, Apurímac and Urubamba, and the dry valleys around Cochabamba and in Chuquisaca. Molle, <em>Schinus molle</em>, thorny shrubs and columnar cacti grow on stony slopes, often between fields and terraces. The dry valleys further north belong to Marañón and northern inter-Andean dry forest, wet slopes to Andean montane forest. Giant Hummingbird, Bearded Mountaineer, Black-necked Woodpecker and Chestnut-breasted Mountain Finch are characteristic. Bolivian Blackbird and Bolivian Earthcreeper live in the Bolivian valleys, where Monk Parakeet nests on cliff faces.

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Bare and sparsely vegetated desert along the Pacific coast, from the Sechura Desert in north-western Peru to the southern coast of Peru, cut by dry ravines. Rain almost never falls, but in some years El Niño brings sudden green. On sandy plains fields of grey air plants, <em>Tillandsia</em>, which draw their moisture from the fog, grow in places. Fog oases on the coastal hills belong to Lomas, green river valleys to Riparian woodland of the Andes and coastal valleys. The birds are few but special: Peruvian Thick-Knee, Coastal Miner, Least Seedsnipe, Burrowing Owl and Short-tailed Field Tyrant live on the plains, Tumbes Swallow in the northern desert and Cactus Canastero on the cactus slopes at the foot of the Andes.

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Herb and shrub vegetation on coastal hills in the desert, which in the winter months lives on the dense sea fog (garúa) that condenses against the slopes. In those months annuals and bulbs flower, such as amancae, <em>Ismene amancaes</em>; in summer the lomas largely wither. Well-known examples are Lachay north of Lima and Atiquipa in the south, where trees such as tara, <em>Caesalpinia spinosa</em>, also grow. The bare desert around them belongs to Coastal desert. Birds of the lomas include Raimondi's Yellow Finch, which wanders in large flocks, Least Seedsnipe, Coastal Miner, Cactus Canastero, Long-tailed Mockingbird, Peruvian Sheartail and Oasis Hummingbird.

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Semi-deciduous forest of the Chiquitanía and the thorn forest and scrub of the Bolivian Chaco, in the lowlands of south-eastern Bolivia. The Chiquitano forest is tall and largely bare in the dry season; further south it becomes lower and thornier, with quebracho, <em>Schinopsis</em>, bottle trees and cacti. Wet savannas belong to Beni savanna and cerrado, the forests of the Andean slopes to Andean montane forest. Typical birds are Red-legged Seriema, Blue-crowned Parakeet, Green-cheeked Parakeet, Toco Toucan, Purplish Jay, Great Rufous Woodcreeper, Greater Wagtail-Tyrant, Red-crested Cardinal and Masked Gnatcatcher. Plush-crested Jay lives in the Chiquitanía, and the rare Chaco Eagle hunts in the Chaco.

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Subtropical montane rainforest from about 900 to 2000 m on both flanks of the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru, and on the slopes of the Colombian inter-Andean valleys. The forest is tall and rich in epiphytes, tree ferns and palms, and often lies in cloud. Lower forest belongs to Chocó rainforest or Eastern Andean foothill forest, the cloud forest above to Northern Andean cloud forest and temperate forest. Andean Cock-of-the-Rock displays in groups by rocky streams, Golden-headed Quetzal and Orange-breasted Fruiteater feed on fruit, and mixed tanager flocks with Golden Tanager move through the canopy. Toucan Barbet, Club-winged Manakin and Glistening-green Tanager live on the western flank, Multicolored Tanager in Colombia.

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Cloud forest and high montane forest from about 2000 to 3500 m in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru, up to the tree line. The trees are lower and covered in moss, bromeliads and orchids, with an understorey of bamboo, <em>Chusquea</em>; just below the tree line stands low, twisted elfin forest. Wax palms, <em>Ceroxylon quindiuense</em>, grow in the Colombian Andes, and Yellow-eared Parrot nests in them. Lower forest belongs to Northern Andean subtropical forest, the open land above to Páramo. Typical birds are Andean Guan, Sword-billed Hummingbird, Grey-breasted Mountain Toucan, Chestnut-crowned Antpitta, Turquoise Jay, Hooded Mountain Tanager and Grass-green Tanager.

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Montane rainforest from about 1000 to 2000 m on the eastern flank of the Andes in central and southern Peru and Bolivia, the lower Yungas. The forest grows on steep, wet slopes above the Amazonian lowlands and is rich in tree ferns, epiphytes and fruiting trees; well-known sites are the Manu road and the Yungas of La Paz. Lower forest belongs to Eastern Andean foothill forest, the cloud forest above to Upper Yungas cloud forest. Andean Cock-of-the-Rock displays in groups by streams, Golden-headed Quetzal and Versicolored Barbet feed on fruit, Blue-banded Toucanet is a Yungas species, and flocks with Paradise Tanager and Saffron-crowned Tanager move through the canopy. Yungas Manakin lives in Bolivia and southern Peru.

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Cloud forest and upper montane forest of the Yungas, from about 2000 m up to the tree line, on the eastern flank of the Andes in central and southern Peru and Bolivia. The forest is low, mossy and often wrapped in cloud, with bamboo, <em>Chusquea</em>, in the understorey. In southern Bolivia it grades into Tucumán-Bolivian montane forest with alder, <em>Alnus acuminata</em>, and <em>Podocarpus parlatorei</em>. Lower forest belongs to Lower Yungas forest, the open land above to Humid puna. Typical birds are Hooded Mountain Toucan, Barred Fruiteater, Rufous-faced Antpitta, Golden-collared Tanager and Bolivian Brushfinch. Inca Wren and Marcapata Spinetail live in the bamboo around Cusco, and Dusky-legged Guan in the southern montane forest.

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Small, often isolated groves of Polylepis (queñua), with their red, peeling bark, and of <em>Gynoxys</em>, high above the closed tree line in páramo and puna, to above 4000 m. They usually grow in ravines and on rocky slopes beyond the reach of fire and livestock. The closed forest lower on the slope belongs to Northern Andean cloud forest and temperate forest or Upper Yungas cloud forest, the open grassland around them to Páramo, puna and high Andes. A number of threatened birds are tied to these groves, such as Royal Cinclodes, White-browed Tit-Spinetail, Tawny Tit-Spinetail, Giant Conebill and Ash-breasted Tit-Tyrant. Stripe-headed Antpitta, Tit-like Dacnis and Thick-billed Siskin also occur.

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Cool, humid grassland above the tree line in Colombia, Ecuador and the far north of Peru, with tussocks of bunchgrass, cushion plants and the stem rosettes of frailejón, <em>Espeletia</em>. Bare scree and the super-páramo above belong to Glaciers, snowline and scree, and the transition to puna in northern Peru to Jalca. Mist and drizzle keep the ground waterlogged, so that bog moss and small pools lie between the tussocks; frailejón grows mainly in Colombia and northern Ecuador. Carunculated Caracara walks over the grass and Andean Condor glides along the slopes. Ecuadorian Hillstar and Rainbow-bearded Thornbill take nectar from low flowers, and Green-bearded Helmetcrest lives only in the páramo of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. Tawny Antpitta, Many-striped Canastero, Paramo Pipit and Plumbeous Sierra Finch live among the tussocks.

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High grassland in the mountains of northern Peru, in Cajamarca, Amazonas and La Libertad, where the humid páramo gradually gives way to puna. The wet grassland with frailejón further north belongs to Páramo, and the tussock grassland of central Peru to Humid puna. Frailejón is absent here; the jalca consists of tussocks of bunchgrass, <em>Calamagrostis</em> and <em>Festuca</em>, with dwarf shrubs, cushion plants and boggy hollows, and much of it is grazed and burned. Curve-billed Tinamou hides in the grass, Variable Hawk hunts over the slopes, and Andean Lapwing breeds on closely grazed patches. Many-striped Canastero, Paramo Pipit and Plumbeous Sierra Finch, species that also live in the páramo, are found here among the tussocks.

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Extensive tussock grassland on the high plateaus of central and southern Peru and northern Bolivia, with a summer rainy season and night frost in every season. More sparsely vegetated land with tola and cacti belongs to Dry puna and altiplano, and the waterlogged cushion bogs to Andean bogs and bofedales. The pajonal consists of stiff tussocks of ichu, <em>Jarava ichu</em>, and <em>Festuca</em>, with boulders and cushion plants, and is largely grazed by alpacas, llamas and sheep. Ornate Tinamou nests in the grass, and Andean Lapwing and Andean Flicker, which nests in colonies in earth banks, feed on closely grazed ground. Mountain Caracara walks among the herds, Andean Hillstar nests under rock overhangs, and Streak-throated Canastero, Puna Ground Tyrant, Bright-rumped Yellow Finch and Correndera Pipit live among the tussocks.

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Sparsely vegetated grassland, scrub and semi-desert on the altiplano of southern Peru and Bolivia and the dry high plains above it, with long dry winters and large differences between day and night. The denser tussock grassland of the wetter puna belongs to Humid puna, queñua woods to Polylepis woodland, and the salt flats and salt lakes to Altiplano salt lakes and salt flats. Low resinous shrubs, tola, <em>Parastrephia</em> and <em>Baccharis</em>, alternate with grass tussocks and cushion cacti, and yareta, <em>Azorella compacta</em>, grows on rocky slopes. Lesser Rhea and Puna Tinamou walk in small groups across the plain, and Grey-breasted Seedsnipe and Golden-spotted Ground Dove crouch among the stones. Puna Miner digs nest burrows in sandy banks, and Puna Yellow Finch and Ash-breasted Sierra Finch forage in flocks among the tolares.

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The highest zone of the Andes: scree slopes, bare rock, glacier margins and snowfields, with the sparsely vegetated super-páramo in the north. Lower cliffs and gorges belong to Cliffs, gorges and canyons, and the closed grassland below to Páramo and the puna formations. Plants grow only as cushions, rosettes and lichens between the stones, and it freezes almost every night. On Chimborazo Ecuadorian Hillstar takes nectar from the last flowering shrubs below the snow. Glacier Finch roosts and sometimes nests in cavities in glacier ice, as on the Quelccaya ice cap in southern Peru. Rufous-bellied Seedsnipe lives on bare slopes near the snowline, White-fronted Ground Tyrant and Plumbeous Sierra Finch forage among the scree, and Andean Condor and Mountain Caracara patrol the slopes.

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Open grassy plains with scattered trees, palm groves and gallery forest along the rivers in the Orinoco Llanos, which touch the edge of the region in eastern Colombia. The savannas of the Beni belong to Beni savanna and cerrado, and sown pasture to Pasture and ranchland. The higher parts stay dry, while low plains lie under water for months in the rainy season and bake to hard ground in the dry season; moriche palm, <em>Mauritia flexuosa</em>, grows in wet hollows. Double-striped Thick-Knee rests in the grass by day, Crested Bobwhite lives in small coveys among the shrubs, and Savanna Hawk and White-tailed Hawk hunt over the plain. Jabiru and Sharp-tailed Ibis feed in the flooded parts, Fork-tailed Flycatcher perches on shrubs, and Red-breasted Meadowlark and Grassland Sparrow live in the grass.

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Seasonally flooded savannas, marshes and forest islands in the Llanos de Moxos in the Beni, together with the Pampas del Heath on the border of Peru and Bolivia and the cerrado of eastern Bolivia. The Llanos of Colombia belong to Llanos savanna, and the dry forest of Santa Cruz to Chiquitano dry forest and Chaco. In the rainy season the rivers flood vast areas of the Moxos plains; groves with palms stand on higher ground, and in the cerrado low, twisted trees grow in grassland on poor soil. Blue-throated Macaw lives only in the palm groves of the Beni. Greater Rhea and Red-legged Seriema walk across the plain, Southern Screamer, Maguari Stork and Jabiru live in the wet parts, and Cock-tailed Tyrant and Black-masked Finch are birds of the tall grass.

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Rock faces, deep gorges and canyons in the Andes, such as the Colca and Cotahuasi canyons in southern Peru, which are more than 3000 m deep, and the Utcubamba valley in northern Peru. High scree slopes belong to Glaciers, snowline and scree, and sea cliffs to Rocky shore and sea cliffs. In the dry canyons columnar cacti and thorny shrubs grow on the ledges, and in humid gorges ferns, mosses and bromeliads. In the Colca Andean Condor rides the morning thermals along the walls. Peregrine Falcon and Black-chested Buzzard-Eagle breed on ledges, Andean Swift and White-collared Swift nest in crevices, Giant Hummingbird visits flowering cacti, and Canyon Canastero and Striated Earthcreeper forage among the rocks.

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Caves and overhanging gorges, from the foothills into the mountains, where birds breed and roost in complete darkness or in twilight. Open rock faces belong to Cliffs, gorges and canyons, and the forest around the entrances to the surrounding forest formations. Oilbird nests in colonies on ledges deep inside the cave and flies out at night to feed on the fruit of palms and laurels; well-known colonies lie in the Cueva de los Guácharos in Colombia, the Cueva de los Tayos in Ecuador and the Cueva de las Lechuzas near Tingo María in Peru. White-collared Swift and Chestnut-collared Swift nest on wet rock walls at cave entrances and behind waterfalls, Blue-and-white Swallow nests in crevices, and American Barn Owl spends the day in cave entrances.

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The coast of the Galápagos with black lava rocks, white coral sand, brackish lagoons and mangrove, and the young, bare lava fields that run down to the sea. The dry lowlands with cacti and palo santo belong to Galápagos arid zone. Red, black and white mangroves fringe sheltered bays, and on the youngest lava fields of Fernandina and Isabela almost nothing grows yet. Galapagos Penguin and Flightless Cormorant breed along the cool west coast of Isabela and Fernandina. Lava Gull and Lava Heron feed on the rocks, as do American Oystercatcher and Yellow-crowned Night Heron, and American Flamingo and White-cheeked Pintail live in the lagoons. Mangrove Finch survives only in a few mangrove stands on Isabela.

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Dry lowlands above the shores of the Galápagos, covering the greater part of the land area and with only a short rainy season. The lava shores and lagoons belong to Galápagos coast and lava fields, and the green forest higher up to Scalesia forest. Tree-like prickly pears, <em>Opuntia</em>, candelabra cacti, <em>Jasminocereus</em>, and palo santo, <em>Bursera graveolens</em>, which stands leafless in the dry season, grow among thorn shrubs and lava blocks. Small Ground Finch and Common Cactus Finch eat seeds and cactus flowers, Galapagos Mockingbird runs over the ground, and Galapagos Dove searches for seeds among the stones. Galapagos Flycatcher and Mangrove Warbler hunt insects in the shrubs, and Galapagos Hawk sits on lookout posts. Espanola Mockingbird and Espanola Cactus Finch live on Española.

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Evergreen forest of Scalesia, a tree-sized member of the daisy family found only in the Galápagos, on the windward side of the higher islands above a transition zone of mixed scrub. The open highland with Miconia and Zanthoxylum above belongs to Galápagos humid highlands, and the dry lowlands to Galápagos arid zone. On Santa Cruz <em>Scalesia pedunculata</em> forms dense forest with mosses, ferns and epiphytes, wrapped in garúa during the cool season; much of it has been cleared for farming or overgrown by introduced blackberry. Woodpecker Finch probes insects from the wood with a cactus spine, Small Tree Finch and Vegetarian Finch feed in the canopy, and Green Warbler-Finch gleans insects among the leaves. Galapagos Flycatcher breeds in the forest, Vermilion Flycatcher has declined sharply on Santa Cruz, and Short-eared Owl also hunts by day.

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Humid highland above the Scalesia forest on the higher islands, with Miconia scrub, Zanthoxylum woodland, ferns and mosses. The lower, closed forest belongs to Scalesia forest, and the treeless uplands with ferns and sedges to Galápagos pampa zone. On Santa Cruz and San Cristóbal a dense belt of <em>Miconia robinsoniana</em>, a shrub found only in the Galápagos, grows here; elsewhere the zone is more open. Much of it has been turned into pasture and fields or overgrown by introduced plants. Galapagos Petrel digs its nest burrows in the moist slopes and comes ashore at night. Galapagos Crake and Paint-billed Crake live in the dense undergrowth, and Woodpecker Finch, Green Warbler-Finch and Small Tree Finch forage in the scrub, while Galapagos Martin hunts overhead.

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Treeless uplands on the highest parts of the large islands, such as Santa Cruz and San Cristóbal, which are almost constantly misty and wet in the cool season. The Miconia scrub and the forest below belong to Galápagos humid highlands. The vegetation recalls a small páramo: tree ferns, <em>Cyathea weatherbyana</em>, other ferns, sedges, grasses, bog moss and shallow pools in old craters. Galapagos Petrel nests in burrows in the wet soil, Galapagos Crake and Paint-billed Crake move unseen among the ferns, and Short-eared Owl hunts low over the grassland. Small Ground Finch moves up from lower zones, and Galapagos Martin hunts over the summits.

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Fields of potato, maize, barley, broad beans and quinoa, terraces and fallow land with hedges and stone walls, from the inter-Andean valleys to well above 3500 m. Irrigated fields in the coastal valleys belong to Irrigated farmland and rice fields, and meadows to Pasture and ranchland. The terraces of the Colca and of the Sacred Valley near Cusco have been farmed for centuries, the hedges are often of agave, <em>Agave americana</em>, and fallow land turns into rough grassland and scrub. Eared Dove and Rufous-collared Sparrow are abundant everywhere, Band-tailed Seedeater and Hooded Siskin eat seeds along the edges, and Chiguanco Thrush and Great Thrush search for worms on ploughed ground, where Andean Gull also follows the plough. American Kestrel and Black-chested Buzzard-Eagle hunt over the fields.

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Irrigated fields, sugar cane, rice fields and orchards in the coastal valleys of Peru and Ecuador and in the lowlands. Fields in the Andes belong to Andean fields and terraces, and shrimp farms to Harbors, dumps and fish ponds. In the desert of the Peruvian coast the river valleys are green oases of rice, sugar cane, maize and asparagus, and large rice fields lie in Lambayeque, Piura and around Guayaquil. Cattle Egret, Snowy Egret and Black-necked Stilt feed in flooded fields, in Ecuador Wattled Jacana walks over floating plants, and Peruvian Meadowlark sings from the dikes. Scrub Blackbird, Saffron Finch, Chestnut-throated Seedeater and Croaking Ground Dove live along the edges and among the crops.

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Pasture of sown grass with scattered trees, hedges and posts, from the lowlands to the mountain meadows of the Andes. Natural grasslands belong to Páramo, puna and high Andes and to Lowland savannas, and fields to the other farmland formations. Large ranching areas lie in the Magdalena and Cauca valleys of Colombia, in the Ecuadorian Andes and in the lowlands along the eastern slope, where much pasture lies on former rainforest. Cattle Egret follows the cattle, Smooth-billed Ani and Shiny Cowbird search for insects on the ground, and Southern Lapwing noisily defends its nest. Yellow-headed Caracara perches on cattle or posts, Tropical Kingbird and Fork-tailed Flycatcher sit on wires and fences, and Black Vulture looks for carrion.

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Coffee, cacao and mixed orchards with shade trees on slopes and in the foothills. Bananas and oil palm belong to Banana, oil palm and tree plantations, and young forest on abandoned land to Secondary forest and forest edge. In the coffee zone of Colombia, roughly between 1000 and 2000 m, coffee often grows under shade trees such as guamo, <em>Inga</em>, and in Ecuador and Peru cacao is grown under tall trees in the lowlands and foothills. During the northern winter shade coffee shelters migrants from North America, such as Cerulean Warbler, Canada Warbler, Blackburnian Warbler and Summer Tanager. Blue-grey Tanager, Palm Tanager and Rufous-tailed Hummingbird are common all year round, and in Colombia Crimson-backed Tanager lives along the edges.

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Large monocultures of banana and oil palm in the lowlands, and plantations of eucalyptus and pine in the Andes. Shade coffee, cacao and mixed orchards belong to Coffee, cacao and agroforestry. Banana plantations cover large parts of the coastal plain of Ecuador, oil palm grows in Esmeraldas, the Magdalena valley and the Peruvian Amazon among other places, and eucalyptus, <em>Eucalyptus globulus</em>, and pine, <em>Pinus radiata</em> and <em>Pinus patula</em>, have replaced the original grassland or forest in many places in the Andes. Few species live here: Great-tailed Grackle, Smooth-billed Ani, Tropical Kingbird and Blue-grey Tanager in the lowland plantations, and Sparkling Violetear, Great Thrush and Rufous-collared Sparrow in the eucalyptus groves of the Andes.

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Villages and towns with their gardens, squares and parks, from an Andean village with eucalyptus to Bogotá, Quito, Lima and La Paz. Harbors and dumps belong to Harbors, dumps and fish ponds. In the highland cities Great Thrush, Rufous-collared Sparrow, Eared Dove and Sparkling Violetear live in gardens and parks, and in Quito also Black-tailed Trainbearer. In Lima, in the middle of the coastal desert, the irrigated parks and gardens are oases with Amazilia Hummingbird, West Peruvian Dove, Croaking Ground Dove, Long-tailed Mockingbird and Vermilion Flycatcher. Blue-and-white Swallow nests under roofs, American Barn Owl in towers and old buildings, and the introduced House Sparrow and Rock Pigeon are common in most towns.

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Harbors, fishing landings, dumps, shrimp farms and sewage ponds, mostly along the coast. Tidal flats and lagoons belong to Tidal flats, lagoons and estuaries, and the built-up area itself to Towns, cities and parks. In Peruvian fishing ports such as Paita, Chimbote and Callao birds gather at fish waste, and around the Gulf of Guayaquil extensive shrimp farms lie where mangrove once stood. Peruvian Pelican, Neotropic Cormorant, Belcher's Gull and Kelp Gull sit on quays and boats, with Magnificent Frigatebird soaring overhead. Black Vulture and Turkey Vulture feed at dumps, and Black-necked Stilt, Snowy Egret and White-cheeked Pintail forage in shrimp and sewage ponds, joined by many shorebirds on migration.

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